(From Hard Control to Soft Control: The Involution of China's Temoprary State-Journalism Relationship)
Peking University, Department of Sociology, Zhou Yihu
commercialization, economic soft control, economic autonomy, political autonomy, relations between the state and journalism
one problem: why the commercial and political control of synchronous increase
all kinds of literature, it is that the authoritarian nature of governance characteristics of the national news the state must maintain control of the press release. But in 1978 China launched a market economy so that China's economic autonomy of the media continue to increase, but also inevitably affect the formation of the planned system, the era of absolute state control relationship to journalism.
since the founding of China as a national journalism height control propaganda machine, its operating entirely on state funding. But journalism started in 1978, market reforms in China since the Chinese journalism from the market's ability to obtain funds is growing. the media's advertising revenue has been in the ultra high-speed growth, the state the proportion of total financial allocation dramatically reduced in journalism. According to official statistics, by 1998, most news organizations have reached financial self-sufficiency rate 100% 1.
that will enhance the autonomy of national economic relations journalism what kind of change, but have always been two opposing points of view.
modernization theory that will enable the commercialization of journalism, news organizations from state control are more motivated to become more radical in politics. In this view, As the media to promote press freedom and undermine the authoritarian control of the tools that will keep the market economy to create a growing environment of information, when the information reaches mass, the authoritarian state will be because the information is out of control while under the blows of all kinds of collective action collapse. (Dennis and Synder 1998; Huntington 1991; Schell 1998; Shane 1994; Splichal 1994; Plumb, 1983; ewer, 1997; Shane 1994; Smith, 1996, Ekecrantz and Olofsson, 2000; Curran, 2002). for the Chinese Contemporary Relations between the state and trends in journalism, some scholars believe that China's market economy since 1992 and the corresponding transformation of the media business the driving force of freedom of the press is much larger than the state power to suppress freedom of the press. For example, Lull (1991) and Zha (1995) that the liberal culture of the Chinese transformation of the nineties imperceptibly weakened authoritarian political foundation. Pei (1994) in Oriental Television, for example, that the market economy is the growing power of capital within a unified system of political propaganda provides a competitor. Chu (1994) even think that everywhere in the local television station began to shake the state of journalism in the control system.
as the antithesis of modernization theory, critical theory, journalism, business journalism for the economic interests of The more conservative. commercial news organizations will increasingly focus on the actual control over the management and owners in a few hands (Herman and Chomsky, 1988; Bagadikian 1992; Gilen and Hertzman, 2000; Ryan 1991; Soley 1992; Tuchman 1972) . the media to give up in order to meet the market judge the value of good and evil (Hall and Whannel, 1964), to give up the radical critique of society seeking to reconcile a variety of private interests (Habermas, 1961), strengthen the weakened role of the citizen consumer consciousness (Ma, 2000), the basic functions of media more and more digestion (Baker, 2002), so that while the media ever give up trying to maintain the status quo of social responsibility. for the relationship between Chinese literature and journalism that, 90 years, journalists reported a direct challenge to state power increasingly reduced (Lee et. al 2000; McCormick 2002/2003; Pan 2000). Zhao (2002) Discourse Strategies of Chinese Journalism research shows that, despite the growing number of corruption cases and local government practitioners of media exposure, but these actions are grouped into a basic The conservative justice. He (2000) based on the soft critical reporting was also significantly reduced. As the premise that the pursuit of economic interests to maintain good relations with all levels of government, the media more and more civilians are willing to report some of the social problems, rather than in the 80 major social issues of deep concern.
Although these two views are given two diametrically opposite projections, each with a certain logical and reasonable evidence of relevant experience and 2, but the reality is clearly much more complex than this. of the country since 1995 into a mainstream media Since the work so far has engaged in, including entertainment television drama, and character education topics such as television programming interviews exposed to a lot of coverage in different areas of the journalists, we have witnessed since the early 90s Chinese journalism since the reform of commercial ultra-high speed development, but also noted that countries in this area means to maintain tight political control and flexibility. According to the author's participant observation, since the late 90s and commercialization of political control, while the promotion, is the journalism in contemporary relations between China and or at least the relationship between the State and television journalism, one of the most important characteristics, at least for the following three phenomena: <>
(1) the ability of countries to enhance political control - 90 years since the state deviant behavior journalists more lenient punishment, but the regulatory capacity of public opinion not only did not decline, such as the SARS period (Li Xiguang, 2003), Iraq war, anti-American demonstrations National University (zhao, 1999) and a variety of major events and social hot spots, countries have shown an exceptional ability to control public opinion. in the news industry, the rapid expansion of scale, market forces are increasingly powerful environment, the state of journalism in the unified, centralized leadership is not only not weakened, but growing.
(3) journalism in the national regulatory environment synchronous speed the commercialization process - to strengthen control of the State and journalists on the value of political control of these two features in the planned economy era, China's journalism also exists, but commercial and government control or simultaneous enhancement of the structural characteristics of After the first time in 1978. According to neo-liberal economics, logic, journalism, government regulation and ownership control of the content will result in journalism and efficiency and reduce biodiversity loss, in fact, but more and more intense competition in journalism, increasing economies of scale, efficiency increasingly rising to become one of important national sources. Chinese news media industry is the rapid growth of more than 100 billion yuan per year industry, profits and taxes over the tobacco industry, became China's fourth largest industry profits . to non-profit institutions CCTV, for example, CCTV 2002, 1.2 billion yuan turned over to the State, tax in Beijing in 2006 became the first unit to become nationally renowned for big profits; As of 2005, a total of 2381 home Newspapers, 9000 journals, more than 3,000 TV channels, 2103 radio frequency 4 and become a veritable media power.
above facts show that commercial and political control of synchronization to enhance the mixed state, may be closer to the contemporary state and the reality of journalism, modern theory and critical theory may only describe the development status of China's one aspect of journalism. Interestingly, the cases support the modern point of view focused on early to mid 90's, and support the focus of critical theory in the 90 cases late and the area of 21st century journalism. This increased the value of mainstream journalism and the growing strength of national administrative side by side, thus making a Pan (2006) assert that contemporary News of China reporters Yi Jingchu and Yu Zhiye ethical value of is both conservative and radical groups in the conflict characteristics.
So what commercial relationship to the contemporary state and journalism and what impact? How to determine China's current relations between the state and journalism in general is moving towards separation or more close? Clearly, journalism is in a transition period of China, all regions, industries, groups have a strong heterogeneity, so the field based solely on the local, regional, observation of cases is difficult to extrapolate the relationship between the national journalism overall appearance Even according to the conclusions of these case studies often against each other. Second, because of the relationship between contemporary Chinese journalism major from Western communication theory, political science point of view, most of these ideas rooted in Western democracies, and Latin America study the experience of countries, if it simply used a completely different social structure of the Chinese journalism field because of the institutional environment will likely produce different interpretation of systematic bias. Therefore, this article will be based on the following two points to start the contemporary national news Investigation of industry relations: First, from a logical study of Western modernization theory and critical theory and the assumption used in some of China's institutional bias, and find out the relationship between journalism in contemporary China dominated the basic mechanism of evolution; First journalism industry with the reform process in China, explained how the mechanism dominating the evolution of the contemporary relationship between the national journalism, and the commercialization of the media and contemporary country - that a general relationship between journalism and Reviewing. <>
Second, modernization theory and the basic ideas of Critical Theory and application of traditional Chinese system of error <>
Western media research areas include two traditional theoretical traditions. faction is concerned about the authoritarian modernization of the country's democratic theory of political development One concern about the commercialization of leading Western news of the new democratic crisis critical theory of Marxism. modernization theory that the maintenance of authoritarian rule in the State one of the important mass media is strictly controlled in order to prevent people to challenge authority, the State must be strictly controlled freedom of the press. and in the process of modernization, the authoritarian state had to develop a market economy 5, with the growing market economy, business and the free flow of technical information, news journalism by increasing the number and variety of news types gradually the country lost the ability to control the whole society, and ultimately the country's strict control on the mass media to the end. (Dennis and Synder 1998; Huntington 1991; Schell 1998; Shane 1994; Splichal 1994). <> Another theory tradition Neo-Marxist critical theory. The theory concerned the Western democracies, the increasing commercialization of the news media to suppress democratic phenomenon. (Avery and Eason 1991; Curran and Park 2000; Hall 1977; Keane 1991; Kellner 1990; Mazzocco 1994; McManus 1994 ; Sigal 1973). They believe that in a market economy, journalists are part of the middle class and even upper-class (Gitlin 1980), news organizations are controlled by large companies, (Bagdikian 1992; Herman and Chomsky 1988; Molotch 1979), in order for the maximum number of advertising revenue to give up journalism to more neutral news. (Ryan 1991; Soley 1992; Tuchman 1972). To further increase the advertising revenue, but journalism to be sold cheap and get rich, rich advertising revenue. This allows political parties and those of newspapers, the radical newspaper the face of shrinking the underclass (Cranfield 1978; Curran 1978; Curran and Seaton 1985; Mott 1959; Schiller 1981). <> from the current institutional environment of China starting think about these two theories the traditional, you can find a flaw in that they have common is that both theories do not seriously consider the State's role in the tripartite interaction. For example, modernization theory that the media richness and diversity of information will be destroyed dug quietly authoritarian rule, critical theory that the market mechanism will lead to gradually press for their own interests with the ruling class succumb to market forces, and critical theory is that the State media is an irrelevant subject, therefore, the common view is that the two countries tend to be regarded as a static, means the established system of authoritarian organization. But the fact is Under the authoritarian government and democracy can exert a powerful influence on journalism. such as the world media, the so-called model of public broadcasting - UK BBC seemingly independent of the Government, the Government can appoint members of the company's personnel of the radio power to influence the media's political leanings. in China, with a strong state - a long tradition of weak social country, the state controlled press is more powerful is a basic fact that the national discussion, news and market the starting point of the tripartite relationship.
since the founding of the state has been through the implementation of quasi-military management (Yu Guoming, 1997). State regulation of journalism means of implementation of a three-pronged: First, organizational control, control of one discourse, one is financial control. (1) Organizational control: the State through the cadres Ministry , journalism any production activities must be reported to the publicity campaign, approved the budget allocated under the scheme, so that part of the journalism from advocacy to the production of any link does not exist independent of space. In the full range of state of journalism under the supervision of the Trinity Even during the Cultural Revolution when the power of journalism there are serious differences with the national will, the state has always been able to firmly control the political situation, the formation of a national one yuan dominance of hegemony.
1978 years later, the news system, has not yet left the income, but they still belong in the law rather than public institutions with independent property right of disposal of state-owned enterprises, the state can allocate their property at any time or for restructuring. In review of the capacity of discourse, even in a market economy under the impact of the mass of information, countries rely on the information units of organizations to implement its filtering approach remains simple and low cost. For example, countries do not spend a lot of energy to review the details of the various news agencies reported, only a piece of paper to Executive Order requires news organizations to mobilize the people in charge of enough to make news organizations consistent with the national will to avoid falling into the authoritarian rule in Latin America when faced with the modernization of both the system has not changed, this control unit of the autonomy of the country in the struggle for complete control of the initiative.
Commercial Reform of Chinese news organizations in the framework of a basic system running, leading the media market largely similar to the monopoly of reform officials and business operations, so that China's main commercial media, motivation, and paths are completely different, difficult to use modernization theory and critical theory to explain to the market in 1978, China's national economic environment - Evolution and journalism. Here, we simply point out two things:
First, the Chinese journalism business since 1978, the reform initiated by the state finance caused by lack of expedient measures to reform the government is the first commercial A main benefit, before 1998 the commercialization of several important reforms are in journalism rather than journalism by the state forces. from the 80's view, the media reform led to the commercialization of the various extra-budgetary revenue growth is no less than 90 to be small, but in other structural conditions, such as cultural habits of thinking, the status of superiority and the poor within the system the combined effects of market expectations, the Chinese media practitioners on the business-oriented incentives apparently much weaker than the government. For example, the original financial system were isolated. Even in the 21st century, the news agencies who are still on the entry level of state financial support and political system of benefits such as an infinite sequence of yearning, even though they do not oppose the market economy to get more economic benefits. Therefore, the single The experience from the Chinese media, the assumptions of modernization theory - will inevitably bring about economic autonomy and political independence - there is a big limitation.
Second, China's market-oriented journalism and other public sector reform, the same characteristics of strategic significance as a public resource, the public sector entirely in state hands. Chinese media even if they can get enough from the market income, but because of the media based resources - such as channels, such as transmission frequency, and layout channel is still state-owned, the state still firmly control the economic lifeline of journalism. Even if 100% of the capital of journalism seems to come from the market, there was no media in Western countries have legal protection of economic independence. From this perspective, not so much journalism is more likely to succumb to the market in China, as it is more likely to succumb to the country to control the market. Therefore, China - Evolution and journalism are not necessarily described as critical theory, as is possible the State rather than market that lead to economic independence and political autonomy of the source of negative correlation.
By ignoring the reform of business journalism in the role of the state, these two theories are not directly on the general characteristics of the development of Chinese journalism gives a concise interpretation of logic. We can have independent economic interests of the media concluded the media because of the increasing commercialization of the conservative media can also be based on the expression of the will of an independent claim with the erosion of the authoritarian state and the development of Chinese journalism from some local find their own evidence.
more importantly, the absence of these two theoretical traditions give a more fundamental dynamic mechanism, and therefore can not explain a state repression, economic prosperity and the news media market, while enhancing the phenomenon, development can not be on the general characteristics of Chinese journalism and respond to the basic historical facts. For example, the country's political repression based on the authoritarian model of authoritarian modernization theory can not explain the media and national will of the countries in the political development of the growing phenomenon of convergence; based on the democratic supervision of state power neo-Marxist model of critical theory see the media that although the media business brings in more conservative, but it can not explain why a more conservative journalism, journalistic professionalism, after weakening but rather the expression of popular will than eight years on behalf of the more diversified.
of the above reasons, this paper argues, due to the different systems and social structures, not only the basic assumptions of modernization theory - the autonomy of the media economy and media and political autonomy are related to - the lack of application to China the relationship between the state and the reality of journalism based on the fundamental assumptions of critical theory - the autonomy of the media economy, media, political autonomy and a negative correlation - that the same lack of strong persuasive. Although the state plays a key role in China's economic development ( Evans 1995; Zhao and Hall 1994), on the formation and development of social movements (Goodwin 2001; Skocpol 1979; Zhao 2001), the democratic process and Democratic Solidarity (Linz and Stepan 1996; Stepan1989) and globalization (eg, Snyder 2001; Weiss 1998) are the most important driving factor, but the entire media studies continued to be free - modernization theory and neo-Marxist critical theory of rule. Chinese media is characterized by state intervention in market-oriented reforms, unlike the Latin American countries under private ownership of the process of the media market, but also different from the market under free competition, commercialization, we can not simply private ownership will be based on the modern media theory and critical theory in contemporary country, market relations and journalism studies, and must fully understand the state of journalism in China since 1978, the role of market-oriented reforms.
Once the core of the state actors are taken into account, you will see a new dynamic mechanism, and to enrich the state - market - Media as the basic framework of the tripartite model of the theoretical system.
in the existing state - market - Journalism framework, the market is often seen as a particularly authoritarian state and national level to compete in the mechanisms of domination, but in fact, Commercialization is a neutral resource allocation mechanism, both can be used to oppose the authoritarian rule, and can be used as a control mechanism for the Government. Even in the market economy, the news media in authoritarian countries are moving towards a democratic expression of will non-political propaganda machine depends not only on the amount of information or news production and the production of motivated journalists, but also on the activities of state control over journalists. If the country can effectively control the activities of journalists and even deal with journalists, the market Authoritarian countries, economic conditions, the media may accept the state of the country's dependence confluence with the national mainstream ideology, the expression of democratic will of the opposite direction.
seen, different social structure, given the market under the economic attributes of the media is not the same, will also bring different political attributes. In China, the country's cultural background and strong institutional environment, in the abstract about the presence in the market without a country is meaningless, the problem is the core of the circumstances under which the market will enhance or weaken the autonomy of the media, or what the market will strengthen or weaken the autonomy of the media.
to consider the economic autonomy of journalism in China and the relationship between political autonomy, have to study journalism in China market Unlike other countries the special nature of journalism operations. This article will focus on the context of a strong national journalism reform path, and introducing a commercial and state-controlled industry to strengthen the same time enhance the phenomenon.
standards based on economic independence (ie, whether journalism can achieve self-support), the reform of China's journalism industry is divided into two stages: (1) The first stage is 1978 -1998 dependent on the survival stage. From 1952, China has relied on government funds journalism to maintain operations .80 early, the state issued a permit due to financial shortage of journalism using its own resources (channels, frequency, layout and other State-owned assets) provide paid services to the community to make up the financial gap expedient policy. At this stage, lack of operating funds in journalism for a long plagued the state financial allocation is still the main source of the media; (2) The second stage is reform launched in 1999 the Government formed after the phase of economic autonomy of 1992 and the media, especially the rapid growth since the late 90's advertising revenue to make journalism and gradually a relatively complete industrial chain, the media does not rely on State funding of basic survival At the same time countries have promulgated a series of mandatory , the paper industry is more inclined to think that journalism in the first stage though journalists may become more radical groups, but the final result in the second phase News of China reporters Qun Tigeng and Qu Yu conservative 6. In fact, the modern theory and critical theory may have been right, but they only guessed the media industry since 1978, under the process of countries - Relations between the side of journalism.
observed, as modernization theory, from the early 80s to 90 mid-industrialization of the Chinese media does state regulation of the first phase of the capacity of a great challenge. While the news media since the founding of the state has maintained a strong control and voice control of the organization, but the economic control of the situation was in the eighties Great changes have taken place since. the media has a relatively more gradual economic autonomy, despite the political discourse is to be rigidly suppressed, but the help of market discourse and public discourse, and journalists can be in a small space with the national bargaining , that is, the endless types of so-called the economic control of the media - in other words, the state news regulatory capacity in the late 90 significantly increased the direct cause of journalism industry. News system, industry reform - fiscal policy concessions, management system deregulation and journalists edge ball News industry needs to further develop a more flexible system of capital and mergers and other organizational laws of market competition, resulting in the state of journalism unit of the conflict between the management system. In this conflict, because of the unshakeable unit system sex, but reverse the market journalism strengthens the authority of the State. For example, Press and Publication Administration in 1999 on the strengthen the national economy in the market under the control of the media rather than the reverse.
the control of the news media personnel and financial powers, the state has always handy to be able to lock in a relatively safe journalism safe. the state also encourages journalism, news organizations are owned by selling channel for the spread of advertising revenue for their development. The political and an economic safe not only created a high-speed development of the miracle of journalism, and industry can only be carried out in a safe deposit box is similar to the original Huang Zongxi's increasingly narrow space, the market began to win from the initial zero-style competition, and competition change.
In this situation, efforts turned to journalism to start for the palate, urge sympathy and internal competition, and other countries in Latin America have fueled the collective action The competition. deepening the reform of the industry to News of China reporters Qun Ti and Xian Rule of a live trap. In order to get more competitive mergers and other financial and administrative ace, journalism is no suspense to full backward the country, competing to rely on political expression access to national administrative grace. Although the Chinese journalism is still walking a fine line in the form of various anti-control activities, but the state firm grasp on the whole of China's reform initiative and the process of journalism, and even since the late 90's the state of journalism in China less and less critical reports. Therefore, the market does for the journalism in the early to bring a certain amount of operational autonomy, but as time goes on but further enhanced the authoritarian state's influence in journalism.
In contemporary China, this country - the evolution of journalism relations, state intervention in the market is an endogenous dynamic mechanism, the national journalism in the long term governance activities gradually developed a new soft control mechanisms. In this paper,
No comments:
Post a Comment